Group: Special Indications
Vascular Malformations
Vascular malformations are the only non-malignant disease area in the indication index: every other disease area in it is a tumour area, while the general principles and device headings do not name a disease at all. Non-oncological electroporation applications are kept on separate pages and do not enter this index. The approach rests on potentiating the sclerotherapeutic effect of bleomycin with electroporation and has been studied particularly in venous and lymphatic malformations.
Clinical publications: randomized, prospective and retrospective studies, case series and case reports. Preclinical publications: animal, in vitro, modelling and experimental biophysics studies.
Literature Status by Method
Publication count, clinical and preclinical split, literature maturity and publication span for each clinical method. The badges at the top of the page summarise the Electrosclerotherapy and ECT records separately; the full split by method is here.
Electrochemotherapy (ECT)
Exploratory literaturethreshold 2/7
Validated records entering the maturity calculation: 2 (clinical 2, preclinical 0), 29% of the records for this method.
2013–2025
Electrosclerotherapy
Early clinical literaturethreshold 13/28
Validated records entering the maturity calculation: 13 (clinical 12, preclinical 0), 46% of the records for this method.
2017–2026
Other electroporation applications
This set does not name a single clinical method; no literature maturity is assigned.
2025–2026
Records with no determined method
This set does not name a single clinical method; no literature maturity is assigned.
2019–2019
Mechanisms Mentioned in Abstracts
Mechanism names are detected by automatic matching over publication abstracts; the figure is the number of publications containing the name. A mention does not mean the mechanism was demonstrated in that study.
Study Type Distribution
Bar length is scaled to the most common study type; the percentage gives the share of the whole area. Colour marks the study-type band, on the same scale as the literature map.
| Study type | Publications | Share within this area |
|---|---|---|
| Randomized Clinical Trial | 2 | 5% |
| Prospective Clinical Study | 5 | 13% |
| Clinical Study | 4 | 11% |
| Retrospective Clinical Study | 7 | 18% |
| Case Series | 3 | 8% |
| Case Report | 6 | 16% |
| Systematic Review / Meta-Analysis | 3 | 8% |
| Guideline / Consensus | 1 | 3% |
| Review | 5 | 13% |
| Protocol | 2 | 5% |
Literature Evidence Table
38 publications listed in order of evidence strength. Click a title to open the citation, mechanism and full abstract drawer.
The study type, model and mechanism columns are assigned automatically and can be wrong for individual records; the abstract column is taken either from the publication's own abstract or from the opening text of the source PDF. The labels are there for scanning and filtering, not as record-level verified data; consult the full text before acting on any single publication. The classification rules and known errors are on the Literature Map.
| Regime | Publication | Year | Study type | Model | Mechanism | Abstract |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electrosclerotherapy | Horbach et al · Dermatol Surg | 2020 | Randomized Clinical Trial | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Transmembrane Potential Change | Background: Bleomycin sclerotherapy is ineffective for treating capillary malformations (CMs) because bleomycin cannot adequately be injected into the small-diameter capillary lumina. Electr… |
| ECT | Zhang et al · J Oral Maxillofac Surg | 2013 | Randomized Clinical Trial | Human | Muscle Contraction and Anaesthesia Requirement | Purpose: Intranasal dexmedetomidine is noninvasive and has been reported as premedication for children undergoing surgery. The aim of this study was to evaluate the safety and efficacy of in… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Colletti et al · J Craniomaxillofac Surg | 2025 | Prospective Clinical Study | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | Arteriovenous Malformations (AVM) can present themselves in an ample clinical spectrum. They worsen over time, creating local complications such as ulceration, destruction, infection, pain, … |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Deleu et al · CVIR Endovasc | 2025 | Prospective Clinical Study | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | Background: Slow-flow vascular malformations are persistent congenital vascular lesions that progressively disrupt tissue structure and function, often causing pain, swelling, and esthetic c… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Goldann et al · Pediatr Res | 2025 | Prospective Clinical Study | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | Background: This prospective study evaluates the effectiveness and safety of Bleomycin electrosclerotherapy (BEST) for treating slow-flow vascular malformations in a pediatric cohort. While … |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Guida et al · – | 2025 | Prospective Clinical Study | – | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | Background: Vascular malformations are relatively common in children. Current therapeutic strategies include observation, pharmacological therapy, sclerotherapy, laser therapy, embolization,… |
| Other EP | Obereisenbuchner et al · Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol | 2025 | Prospective Clinical Study | Human | Reversible Membrane Permeabilisation, Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | Purpose: This study aims to evaluate and compare safety and clinical outcomes of reversible electroporation with either intravenous (BEST) or intraarterial (BEET) Bleomycin application treat… |
| Other EP | Mistretta et al · Neuroradiology | 2026 | Clinical Study | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Reversible Membrane Permeabilisation | A rare extra- and intracranial mixed vascular malformation involving the scalp soft tissues and the dura mater, associated with skull erosion, and characterized by both a low-flow capillary-… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Obereisenbuchner et al · Front Neurol | 2026 | Clinical Study | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Preservation of Nerve and Vascular Structures | Introduction: Recently, Bleomycin-Electrosclerotherapy (BEST) has emerged as a novel alternative in the treatment of slow-flow vascular malformations. Regarding the commonly affected head an… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Haehl et al · J Pediatr Surg | 2025 | Clinical Study | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | Rationale and objectives: Bleomycin electrosclerotherapy (BEST) is a promising treatment for slow-flow vascular malformations (SFVMs). Due to limited paediatric data, this study aimed to ass… |
| ECT | Li et al · Chin J Integr Med | 2013 | Clinical Study | Human | – | Objective: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of electrochemotherapy in treating venous malformations. Methods: Electrochemotherapy was applied to 665 patients with venous malformations of … |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Krauss et al · J Med Imaging Radiat Oncol | 2026 | Retrospective Clinical Study | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Reversible Membrane Permeabilisation | Background: Vascular malformations (VMs) are congenital anomalies that often cause pain, swelling, disfigurement, and functional impairment. Conventional sclerotherapy, though widely used, t… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Loeser et al · Rofo | 2026 | Retrospective Clinical Study | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Reversible Membrane Permeabilisation | Purpose: Sclerotherapy remains the standard for interventional treatment of slow-flow vascular malformations. However, bleomycin electrosclerotherapy (BEST) has shown promising results in th… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Vielsmeier et al · Biomedicines | 2025 | Retrospective Clinical Study | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Potentiation of Cytotoxic Drug Permeability | Background/Objectives: Bleomycin electrosclerotherapy (BEST), which combines intralesional bleomycin administration with electroporation, enhances drug uptake and has shown efficacy in treat… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Loeser et al · Rofo | 2025 | Retrospective Clinical Study | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Reversible Membrane Permeabilisation | Purpose: The objective of the study was to retrospectively investigate the efficacy, technical feasibility, and patient safety of bleomycin electrosclerotherapy for lymphatic malformations a… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Obereisenbuchner et al · Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol | 2025 | Retrospective Clinical Study | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | Introduction: Bleomycin-electrosclerotherapy (BEST) is a novel treatment for slow-flow vascular malformations (SFVMs), most studied in venous malformations. This study specifically evaluated… |
| ECT | Liu et al · J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord | 2024 | Retrospective Clinical Study | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | Objective: This study aims to investigate the difference in safety and efficacy between two treatments for venous malformations (VMs), electrochemotherapy combined with polidocanol foam (ECP… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Schmidt et al · Eur Radiol | 2024 | Retrospective Clinical Study | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | Objectives: To evaluate the safety and clinical outcome of bleomycin electrosclerotherapy (BEST) for treating extracranial slow-flow malformations. Methods: In this retrospective investigati… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Latini et al · J Clin Med | 2025 | Case Series | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Electric Field Distribution and Modelling | Background : According to the ISSVA 2018 classification, arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) are high-flow vascular malformations, distinct from low-flow lesions. About 60% of extracranial AV… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Guida et al · Children (Basel) | 2025 | Case Series | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | Background: Vascular malformations are relatively common in children. Current therapeutic strategies include observation, medical therapy, sclerotherapy or embolization, laser therapy, cryoa… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Wohlgemuth et al · J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord | 2021 | Case Series | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Reversible Membrane Permeabilisation | Objective: Bleomycin is one of the most commonly used agents in sclerotherapy for slow-flow vascular malformations worldwide. However, its efficiency remains unknown. The objective of the pr… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Downes et al · Cureus | 2026 | Case Report | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Reversible Membrane Permeabilisation | Bleomycin electrosclerotherapy (BEST) is a recently introduced treatment for lymphovascular malformations that combines intralesional bleomycin injection under image guidance with a precisel… |
| ECT | Huppert et al · J Dtsch Dermatol Ges | 2025 | Case Report | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Reversible Membrane Permeabilisation | Dear Editors, We present a 59-year-old female patient with a venous malformation. Arising from a vasculogenetic developmental disorder, vascular malformations are rare, congenital malformati… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Loeser et al · Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol | 2024 | Case Report | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | This publication has no abstract. |
| ECT | Krt et al · Front Oncol | 2022 | Case Report | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Electrode Geometry and Placement | Introduction: The study aims to demonstrate a combination of superselective catheterization and electrochemotherapy as a feasible and effective new technological approach in treating high-fl… |
| ECT | Dalmády et al · Pediatrics | 2020 | Case Report | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | The treatment of microcystic and combined lymphangiomas, especially in the head and neck region, is still a challenge because the lymphangiomas do not respond to conventional therapies and t… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | McMorrow et al · Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg | 2017 | Case Report | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | Venous malformations are congenital anomalies of the vascular system. The injection of bleomycin (a cytotoxic, antitumour drug) into the lesion is a safe and effective treatment for low-flow… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Gehr et al · Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol | 2026 | Systematic Review / Meta-Analysis | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | Purpose: To review the available evidence on the effectiveness and safety of bleomycin electrosclerotherapy (BEST) for slow-flow vascular malformations. Materials and methods: A systematic r… |
| ECT | Michailidis et al · Clin Pract | 2025 | Systematic Review / Meta-Analysis | Literature Analysis | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | Background : Vascular malformations (VMs) are congenital anomalies of the vascular system-capillary, venous, lymphatic, arteriovenous, or combined-frequently associated with notable morbidit… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Ognard et al · Eur Radiol | 2025 | Systematic Review / Meta-Analysis | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Potentiation of Cytotoxic Drug Permeability | Background: Vascular anomalies (VAs) require specialized multidisciplinary management. Bleomycin electrosclerotherapy (B)EST combines electroporation with intralesional bleomycin to enhance … |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Stabuc et al · J Vis Exp | 2026 | Guideline / Consensus | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Reversible Membrane Permeabilisation | Bleomycin electrosclerotherapy (BEST) is an emerging, minimally invasive treatment for treating slow-flow vascular malformations. Following intralesional administration of bleomycin, reversi… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Lisec et al · Radiol Oncol | 2026 | Review | Animal (In Vivo) | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Potentiation of Cytotoxic Drug Permeability | Background: Bleomycin electrosclerotherapy (BEST) is an emerging treatment option for vascular malformations (VMs), predominantly slow-flow venous malformations, with increasing use in other… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Muir et al · Radiol Oncol | 2024 | Review | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation, Antivascular Effect and Vessel Disruption | Background: Bleomycin ElectroScleroTherapy (BEST) is a new approach in the treatment of vascular malformations. After bleomycin is administered to the malformation, electric pulses are appli… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Muir et al · Radiol Oncol | 2023 | Review | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | Background: Biomedical applications of electroporation are expanding out of the field of oncology into vaccination, treatment of arrhythmias and now in the treatment of vascular malformation… |
| Undetermined | Horbach SER · – | 2019 | Review | Literature Analysis | – | MANAGEMENT OF VASCULAR MALFORMATIONS SOPHIE E.R. HORBACH MANAGEMENT OF UITNODIGING Voor het bijwonen van de openbare verdediging van het proefschrift MANAGEMENT OF VASCULAR MALFORMATIONS DIA… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Horbach SER · – | 2018 | Review | Literature Analysis | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | The current state of the art treatment modality for hypertrophic capillary malformations, laser therapy, has a considerable rate of non-responders and recurrence. Intralesional bleomycin inj… |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Anon · BMJ Open | 2018 | Protocol | – | – | This publication has no abstract. |
| Electrosclerotherapy | Horbach et al · BMJ Open | 2017 | Protocol | Human | Increased Intracellular Bleomycin Accumulation | Introduction: The current state-of-the-art treatment modality for hypertrophic capillary malformations (CMs), laser therapy, has a considerable rate of non-responders and recurrence. Intrale… |
No publication matches these filters.
Limitations
The counts on this page are bounded by the scope of the source PDF archive and are not a systematic review of the area's literature.
A literature maturity label reflects the number of publications, not their methodological quality: it describes how much literature exists in the area and of what kind, not how strongly the treatment is supported. It does not indicate clinical use, guideline endorsement, reimbursement coverage or regulatory status, and it is not a formal GRADE assessment. The definitions and thresholds of the four tiers are on the Literature Map.
The “clinical publications” figure on this page (27) uses the portal's single definition: primary clinical studies, case series and case reports. Systematic reviews and guidelines are not included. The count feeding the badge threshold is narrower and does not count case reports; in this area 15 publications enter that threshold count across every method together (ECT 2 · Electrosclerotherapy 12 · Other EP 1 · Undetermined 0), whereas the badge at the top of the page rests on the ECT count alone. The two counts are not the same and cannot stand in for one another; the full threshold table is on the Literature Map.
16 of the 38 records in this area enter the threshold count. The remaining 22 are marked in the validation ledger as conflicting, insufficient or out of scoring; they appear in the table below but affect no threshold and no badge. That share (42%) is not equal across areas: it is 13% portal-wide and ranges from 0% to 42% by area. Two areas' badges therefore cannot be compared directly; a lower badge can reflect narrower verification coverage as much as a narrower literature.
Literature maturity on this page is given separately for each clinical method. The methods present in this area are: Electrochemotherapy (ECT), Electrosclerotherapy, Other electroporation applications, Records with no determined method. Methods may share the same biophysical basis but they are distinct treatments; evidence gathered for one method cannot be generalised to another.